Iron Age and Roman Copper Alloys from Northern Britain

Table of Contents

• Summary
• Table of Contents

• List of Illustrations

• 1 Introduction
  • 1.1 Aims
  • 1.2 Objectives

• 2 Previous analytical work
  • 2.1 Iron Age alloys
  • 2.2 Roman copper alloys
  • 2.3 Methods for Presenting and Describing Results

• 3 Analytical Method
  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 X-ray Fluorescence
  • 3.3 Elements
  • 3.4 Sample preparation
  • 3.5 Corrosion
  • 3.6 Polishing
  • 3.7 Drillings
  • 3.8 Quantification
  • 3.9 Minimum detectable levels
  • 3.10 The estimate of confidence limits
  • 3.11 Summary

• 4 Archaeological Background
  • 4.1 Introduction
  • 4.2 Iron Age
    • 4.2.1 Origins
    • 4.2.2 'Arras Culture'
    • 4.2.3 Iron Age Settlement Patterns
    • 4.2.4 Iron Age Agricultural Economies
    • 4.2.5 Iron Age Britain and the 'Celts'
    • 4.2.6 Transformations to Late Iron Age Society
  • 4.3 The Roman Period
    • 4.3.1 The Roman Conquest
    • 4.3.2 Nature of the Roman Occupation
    • 4.3.3 Romanisation and Roman Imperialism
  • 4.4 Deposition and the Archaeological Record

• 5 Iron Age
  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Late Bronze Age/Earliest Iron Age
  • 5.3 Iron Age copper alloys
    • 5.3.1 Introduction
    • 5.3.2 Alloying in the Iron Age: Tin
    • 5.3.3 Alloying in the Iron Age: Lead
    • 5.3.4 Alloying in the Iron Age: Zinc
    • 5.3.5 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: introduction
    • 5.3.6 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: Arsenic
    • 5.3.7 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: Iron
    • 5.3.8 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: Cobalt
    • 5.3.9 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: Nickel
    • 5.3.10 Impurities in Iron Age alloys: Conclusions
  • 5.4 Iron Age alloys - Summary
  • 5.5 'Celtic' metalwork
  • 5.6 Late Iron Age copper alloys
  • 5.7 Summary

• 6. Roman Copper Alloys: A General Examination
  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Sampling
  • 6.3 Alloying in the Roman Period
    • 6.3.1 Zinc
    • 6.3.2 Tin
    • 6.3.3 Lead
  • 6.4 The relationships between different alloying elements
  • 6.5 Comparisons with Previous Analyses
  • 6.6 Trace elements in Roman Alloys
    • 6.6.1 Iron
    • 6.6.2 Nickel
    • 6.6.3 Arsenic
  • 6.7 Summary

• 7 Copper Alloys and Typology
  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Brooches
  • 7.3 Other items of personal adornment
  • 7.4 'Household objects'
  • 7.5 Military fittings
  • 7.6 Conclusions

• 8 Chronological Variations in Roman Alloys
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Caley's 'zinc decline'
  • 8.2 The 'zinc decline' re-examined
  • 8.3 Chronological changes in alloying
  • 8.4 Summary

• 9. Cultural Variations in Alloys Used in the Roman Period
  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 The Early Use of Brass in Europe
  • 9.3 Brass as an 'index of Romanisation'
  • 9.4 Structured deposition and copper alloys
  • 9.5 The problems of inter-site comparisons
  • 9.6 Summary

• 10 Conclusions
  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Summary of the findings
  • 10.3 The Cementation process and the Production of Brass
  • 10.4 Historical and Archaeological Time
  • 10.5 Cultural Change
  • 10.6 Future Research

• Acknowledgements
• Bibliography
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Last updated: Tue Apr 1 1997